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Harm Potential of Magic Mushroom Use a Review Summary

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Mushrooms containing psychoactive indole alkaloids

Psilocybin mushrooms; commonly known as magic mushrooms, mushrooms or shrooms, are a polyphyletic informal grouping of fungi that contain psilocybin which turns into psilocin upon ingestion.[1] [two] Biological genera containing psilocybin mushrooms include Copelandia, Gymnopilus, Inocybe, Panaeolus, Pholiotina, Pluteus, and Psilocybe. Psilocybin mushrooms have been and continue to be used in indigenous New World cultures in religious, divinatory, or spiritual contexts.[3] Psilocybin mushrooms are also used as recreational drugs. They may be depicted in Stone Historic period rock art in Africa and Europe, just are nigh famously represented in the Pre-Columbian sculptures and glyphs seen throughout N, Central and Southward America.

History [edit]

Early [edit]

Pre-Columbian mushroom stones

Prehistoric rock arts well-nigh Villar del Humo in Espana, suggests that Psilocybe hispanica was used in religious rituals six,000 years ago.[4] The hallucinogenic[v] species of the Psilocybe genus have a history of use amid the native peoples of Mesoamerica for religious communion, divination, and healing, from pre-Columbian times to the present mean solar day.[half-dozen] Mushroom stones and motifs take been found in Guatemala.[7] A statuette dating from ca. 200 CE. depicting a mushroom strongly resembling Psilocybe mexicana was found in the west Mexican country of Colima in a shaft and sleeping accommodation tomb. A Psilocybe species known to the Aztecs every bit teōnanācatl (literally "divine mushroom": agglutinative form of teōtl (god, sacred) and nanācatl (mushroom) in Nahuatl language) was reportedly served at the coronation of the Aztec ruler Moctezuma 2 in 1502. Aztecs and Mazatecs referred to psilocybin mushrooms equally genius mushrooms, divinatory mushrooms, and wondrous mushrooms, when translated into English language.[8] Bernardino de Sahagún reported the ritualistic utilise of teonanácatl by the Aztecs when he traveled to Central America after the expedition of Hernán Cortés.[ix]

Afterwards the Spanish conquest, Catholic missionaries campaigned against the cultural tradition of the Aztecs, dismissing the Aztecs as idolaters, and the use of hallucinogenic plants and mushrooms, together with other pre-Christian traditions, was apace suppressed.[seven] The Castilian believed the mushroom immune the Aztecs and others to communicate with demons. Despite this history the utilize of teonanácatl has persisted in some remote areas.[3]

Modern [edit]

The first mention of hallucinogenic mushrooms in European medicinal literature was in the London Medical and Physical Journal in 1799: a homo served Psilocybe semilanceata mushrooms he had picked for breakfast in London'south Light-green Park to his family. The apothecary who treated them later described how the youngest child "was attacked with fits of immoderate laughter, nor could the threats of his father or mother refrain him."[10]

In 1955, Valentina Pavlovna Wasson and R. Gordon Wasson became the first known European Americans to actively participate in an indigenous mushroom ceremony. The Wassons did much to publicize their experience, even publishing an article on their experiences in Life on May 13, 1957.[11] In 1956, Roger Heim identified the psychoactive mushroom the Wassons brought back from Mexico as Psilocybe,[12] and in 1958, Albert Hofmann kickoff identified psilocybin and psilocin as the active compounds in these mushrooms.[thirteen] [xiv]

Inspired by the Wassons' Life article, Timothy Leary traveled to Mexico to experience psilocybin mushrooms himself. When he returned to Harvard in 1960, he and Richard Alpert started the Harvard Psilocybin Project, promoting psychological and religious study of psilocybin and other psychedelic drugs. Alpert and Leary sought out to conduct enquiry with psilocybin on prisoners in the 1960s, testing its effects on recidivism.[15] This experiment reviewed the subjects six months later, and found that the recidivism rate had decreased beyond their expectation, below 40%. This, and another experiment administering psilocybin to graduate divinity students, showed controversy. Shortly after Leary and Alpert were dismissed from their jobs past Harvard in 1963, they turned their attention toward promoting the psychedelic experience to the nascent hippie counterculture.[16]

The popularization of entheogens by the Wassons, Leary, Terence McKenna, Robert Anton Wilson and many others led to an explosion in the use of psilocybin mushrooms throughout the earth. By the early 1970s, many psilocybin mushroom species were described from temperate Northward America, Europe, and Asia and were widely collected. Books describing methods of cultivating large quantities of Psilocybe cubensis were also published. The availability of psilocybin mushrooms from wild and cultivated sources have made them one of the most widely used of the psychedelic drugs.

Now, psilocybin mushroom apply has been reported amongst some groups spanning from primal Mexico to Oaxaca, including groups of Nahua, Mixtecs, Mixe, Mazatecs, Zapotecs, and others.[three] An of import figure of mushroom usage in Mexico was María Sabina,[17] who used native mushrooms, such as Psilocybe mexicana in her practice.

Occurrence [edit]

In a 2000 review on the worldwide distribution of psilocybin mushrooms, Gastón Guzmán and colleagues considered these distributed among the following genera: Psilocybe (116 species), Gymnopilus (xiv), Panaeolus (13), Copelandia (12), Pluteus (six) Inocybe (6), Pholiotina (iv) and Galerina (1).[xviii] Guzmán increased his approximate of the number of psilocybin-containing Psilocybe to 144 species in a 2005 review.

Global distribution of 100+ psychoactive species of genus Psilocybe mushrooms.[nineteen]

Many of them are constitute in Mexico (53 species), with the residual distributed throughout Canada and the U.s. (22), Europe (16), Asia (xv), Africa (four), and Australia and associated islands (19).[20] Mostly, psilocybin-containing species are night-spored, gilled mushrooms that abound in meadows and woods in the subtropics and tropics, usually in soils rich in humus and plant debris.[21] Psilocybin mushrooms occur on all continents, but the majority of species are constitute in subtropical humid forests.[18] P. cubensis is the almost common Psilocybe in tropical areas. P. semilanceata, considered the globe'southward most widely distributed psilocybin mushroom,[22] is found in temperate parts of Europe, North America, Asia, South America, Australia and New Zealand, although it is absent from Mexico.[twenty]

Composition [edit]

Magic mushroom composition varies from genus to genus and species to species.[23] Its primary component is psilocybin[24] which gets converted into psilocin to produce psychoactive effect. Besides, psilocin, norpsilocin, baeocystin, norbaeocystin and aeruginascin may also be nowadays which can modify the effects of magic mushrooms.[23] Panaeolus subbalteatus, one species of magic mushroom, had highest amount of psilocybin compared to the rest of the fruiting body.[23] Certain mushrooms are found to produce beta-carbolines which inhibit monoamine oxidase, an enzyme that breaks down tryptamine alkaloids. They occur in different genera, like Psilocybe,[25] Cyclocybe [26] and Hygrophorus [27] Harmine, harmane, norharmane and a range of other l-tryptophan-derived β-carbolines were discovered in Psilocybe species.

Effects [edit]

The furnishings of psilocybin mushrooms come from psilocybin and psilocin. When psilocybin is ingested, information technology is cleaved downwards by the liver in a process called dephosphorylation. The resulting compound is chosen psilocin, which is responsible for the psychedelic furnishings.[28] Psilocybin and psilocin create short-term increases in tolerance of users, thus making it difficult to misuse them because the more oftentimes they are taken within a short catamenia of fourth dimension, the weaker the resultant furnishings are.[29] Psilocybin mushrooms take not been known to crusade physical or psychological dependence (addiction).[30] The psychedelic effects tend to appear around 20 minutes after ingestion and tin can last upwardly to half dozen hours. Physical effects including nausea, vomiting, euphoria, muscle weakness or relaxation, drowsiness, and lack of coordination may occur.

As with many psychedelic substances, the effects of psychedelic mushrooms are subjective and can vary considerably amidst private users. The listen-altering furnishings of psilocybin-containing mushrooms typically terminal from 3 to eight hours depending on dosage, grooming method, and personal metabolism. The outset 3–four hours after ingestion are typically referred to as the 'peak'—in which the user experiences more than brilliant visuals and distortions in reality. The furnishings can seem to last much longer to the user because of psilocybin'south ability to alter fourth dimension perception.[31]

Despite risks, mushrooms do much less damage in the U.k. than other recreational drugs.

Sensory [edit]

Sensory effects include visual and auditory hallucinations followed past emotional changes and altered perception of fourth dimension and space.[32] Noticeable changes to the auditory, visual, and tactile senses may go apparent around xxx minutes to an hour after ingestion, although effects may have up to two hours to take place. These shifts in perception visually include enhancement and contrasting of colors, strange calorie-free phenomena (such as auras or "halos" around lite sources), increased visual acuity, surfaces that seem to ripple, shimmer, or exhale; complex open up and airtight eye visuals of form constants or images, objects that warp, morph, or modify solid colours; a sense of melting into the environment, and trails behind moving objects. Sounds may seem to have increased clarity—music, for example, can take on a profound sense of cadency and depth.[32] Some users feel synesthesia, wherein they perceive, for example, a visualization of colour upon hearing a particular sound.[33]

Emotional [edit]

As with other psychedelics such equally LSD, the experience, or 'trip', is strongly dependent upon set up and setting.[32] Hilarity, lack of concentration, and muscular relaxation (including dilated pupils) are all normal effects, sometimes in the same trip.[32] A negative surroundings could contribute to a bad trip, whereas a comfortable and familiar environment would set the phase for a pleasant feel. Psychedelics make experiences more intense, so if a person enters a trip in an broken-hearted state of mind, they will likely experience heightened anxiety on their trip. Many users find it preferable to ingest the mushrooms with friends or people who are familiar with 'tripping'.[34] The psychological consequences of psilocybin use include hallucinations and an inability to discern fantasy from reality. Panic reactions and psychosis also may occur, particularly if a user ingests a big dose. In addition to the risks associated with ingestion of psilocybin, individuals who seek to use psilocybin mushrooms also risk poisoning if one of the many varieties of poisonous mushrooms is confused with a psilocybin mushroom.[35]

Dosage [edit]

A bag of 1.five grams of dried psilocybe cubensis mushrooms.

Dosage of mushrooms containing psilocybin depends on the psilocybin and psilocin content of the mushroom which can vary significantly between and within the same species, only is typically around 0.5–ii.0% of the dried weight of the mushroom. Usual doses of the mutual species Psilocybe cubensis range effectually 1.0 to ii.5 grand,[36] while nearly 2.5 to 5.0 g[36] dried mushroom material is considered a strong dose. Higher up 5 g is ofttimes considered a heavy dose with five.0 grams of dried mushroom oftentimes being referred to equally a "heroic dose".[37] [38]

The concentration of active psilocybin mushroom compounds varies from species to species, but also from mushroom to mushroom within a given species, subspecies or variety. The aforementioned holds true for different parts of the same mushroom. In the species Psilocybe samuiensis, the dried cap of the mushroom contains the most psilocybin at about 0.23%–0.90%. The mycelium contains about 0.24%–0.32%.[39] Drinking a mushroom tea is easier on the stomach than consuming the difficult to digest, raw mushroom material, such every bit chitin which makes up fungi's jail cell walls.[forty]

Research [edit]

Due partly to restrictions of the Controlled Substances Act in the United States, research had been frozen until the early on 21st century when psilocybin mushrooms were tested for their potential to treat drug dependence, feet and mood disorders.[41] In 2018–19, the Food and Drug Assistants (FDA) granted Quantum Therapy Designation for studies of psilocybin in depressive disorders.[42]

A study at Johns Hopkins University found that a dose of 20 to xxx mg psilocybin per 70 kg occasioning mystical-blazon experiences brought lasting positive changes to traits including altruism, gratitude, forgiveness and feeling close to others when information technology was combined with meditation and an all-encompassing spiritual exercise support programme.[43] [44] There is scientific evidence for a context- and land-dependent causal effect of psychedelic apply on connection with nature.[45]

Legality [edit]

The legality of the cultivation, possession, and sale of psilocybin mushrooms and of psilocybin and psilocin varies from country to land.

See also [edit]

  • Magic truffle
  • List of psilocybin mushroom species
  • List of psychoactive plants, fungi, and animals
  • Entheogenic drugs and the archaeological record
  • Psychedelic (disambiguation)
  • Psilocybin decriminalization in the United States
  • Psychonautics
  • Mystical psychosis
  • Ethnomycology
  • Medicinal fungi
  • Mushroom tea
  • Carlos Castaneda
  • Paul Stamets

References [edit]

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External links [edit]

The dictionary definition of magic mushroom at Wiktionary

williamsates2000.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psilocybin_mushroom

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